Applying the Theories of New Historicism to Eugene ONeills The Hairy Ape free essay sample

It is clear that when this approach is applied to Eugene ONeills play The Hairy Ape, we achieve a more complete understanding of the text. Born on 1888, ONeill writes from a personal point of view that reflects not only his own battles with depression, alcoholism, attempts at suicide, and illness but the general tragedy of the human condition. After reading The Hairy Ape, we can conclude that ONeills early life influenced his writing. Like ONeill, the protagonist, Bob Smith (Yank), leads a painful life because he is caught in destructive situations and paths that he cannot escape, as he searches for ways to adjust to the economic and cultural realities of 1920s New York. ONeill, himself, left school to begin an education in, what he later called, life experience. Over the next six years he worked as a sailor, lived penniless on the waterfronts of New York, Buenos Aires, and Liverpool, became an alcoholic and tried to commit suicide. We will write a custom essay sample on Applying the Theories of New Historicism to Eugene ONeills The Hairy Ape or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page However, at 24, things began to look up for him when he became a reporter for The New London Daily Telegraph. However, things took a turn for the worse when he was diagnosed with tuberculosis. While in hospital, ONeill began to reevaluate his life in what he later termed his rebirth. It is after this period of hospitalization in 1912-1913 that he refocused his life to become a great playwright. Before ONeill, most American Drama was farce or melodrama; however, after ONeill American Theater was transformed into a serious and important cultural institution. For him, the theater was a place to highlight important social issues and ideas. Considered the first great American playwright, his plays deal with the American tragedy through the backdrop of American history and social movements. According to Ulrich Weisstein, ONeill single-handedly catapulted American drama into world prominence (193). Moreover, he introduced the European movements of realism, naturalism, and expressionism to the American stage as devices to express his comprehensive interest in all of life (Magill 323). As a leading playwright, a Nobel Laureate, and four time Pulitzer Prize winner, ONeill, utilized the Expressionist mode†¦ [to] dramatize the tortured inner life of twentieth-century man (203). Originating in art, Expressionism was a reaction against Impressionism, which aimed at painting external reality. In Literature, the Expressionists wanted to create and project their own reality, their own inner ideas and visions of what they perceived. Expressionism does not care about creating an imitation of the world; what it cares about is applying subjective and eccentric views of the world. Thus, ONeill uses the Expressionist mode in The Hairy Ape, in [order to] project the inner experience of the protagonist (Weisstein 194). For instance, in Scene One, ONeill uses light and the lack of it to express the stark contrast between the world of the passengers and the world of the workers on the Ocean Liner. Mildred Douglas epitomizes aristocracy and opportunity while Yank signifies the under- privileged worker. ONiell shifts the scene from the brightly lit promenade deck where Mildred and her Aunt relax in beautiful sunshine in a great flood, the fresh sea wind blowing across it, to the stokehole where one hanging electric bulb shed just enough light through the murky air laden with coal dust to pile up masses of shadows everywhere. Indeed, the aim of New Historicism is to treat Literature as a participant in a dynamic, changeable culture. The potential for change becomes important, because it means that Literature has a role to play in the reformation of society. With its help, power bases can be restructured and the marginalized recognized (Dobie 182). Of course, the marginalized in The Hairy Ape are the low er-class people like Yank who are oppressed by a bloody capitalist (Scene Four) society. The Hairy Ape deals with modernization and the resulting deterioration of peoples lives. The effect of industrialization and technological development is negatively felt by both the laborers and the wealthy. For the former, industrialization has diminished the human worker to nothing more than an animal. There is no thinking involved in what they need to do. Thus, these workers are forced into jobs that need only physical labor and brute force. ONeill shows this basic decline of the worker into a Neanderthal (Scene One) or Ape-like state when the Firemen are shown to resemble Neanderthals. One of the oldest workers, Paddy, is described as extremely monkey-like. It seems that the more the Firemen work, the more they retreat on the human evolutionary path. For this reason, Yank shows an affinity with a real ape at the end of the play when he says: Me n you, huh? –bot members of dis club! (Scene 8). As for the wealthy class, they are described in the stage directions as a procession of gaudy marionettes, yet with something of the relentless horror of Frankensteins in their detached, mechanical unawareness (Scene Five). Such human degeneration is apparent when Mildred calls herself the waste product (Scene Two) of her fathers steel company. Although she enjoys the financial benefits of the company, she feels unfulfilled. For her, industrialization and technological advancements do little to boost her self-worth; ONeill describes Mildred as skinny, pale and wearing white, with an expression like looking as if the vitality of her stock had been sapped before she was conceived, the expression not of its life energy but merely of the artificialities that energy had won for itself in the spending (Scene Two). For ONeill, the poor have not advanced but rather have been pulled to a low, animalistic state, while the aristocrats have risen so high above nature they have become artificial beings. In Scene Five, we see class warfare being waged against her kind. Using 5th Avenue as a battle ground, Yank attempts to initiate this revolution against Mildred and the higher class. Here, ONeill seems to be using Long as a mouthpiece for Marxist views when he says: Were trespassers ere. Proletarians keep orf the grass! arskin Jesus to giveem more money I wants to convince yer she was ony a representative of er clarss. I wants to awaken yer bloody clarss consciousness. Then yerll see its er clarss yerve got to fight, not er alone (Scene Five). Long has divided Yank and Mildred into the proletariat and the upper classes. The proletariat is the lower, working class while the upper class is the aristocrats. Influenced by Karl Marx, the Socialist Party of the United States was formed in 1901. As industrialism swept Europe and the United States, many workers felt trapped in the capitalist system, in which they faced horrific working conditions, arbitrary wage cuts, and a sense that their lives were controlled by wealthy business owners (Danver 746). According to Steve Golden, in reading literature and history, Marxist theory focuses on economics and social class, and how those elements affect the balance of power in a text. Like Marxist theory, the new historicism also focuses on the exercise of power. However, new historicist critics prefer to examine social issues, marginalized groups, and institutions that wielded power (e. g. , the church) in the time period. From his biography, we know that ONeill befriended many radicals in the Communist Labor Party and he was, therefore, sympathetic to their cause. It seems that ONeill is blaming the upper, capitalist class for causing the industrial worker to spiral downwards. It is likely that ONeill was aware that many steel workers worked twelve hours a day, seven days a week, and lived in squalid housing (Norton 667). For these reasons, when his protagonist, Yank, deteriorates into a primitive, animal-like state, it is because the jobs created by steel companies treat men like animals: imprisoned by white steel (Scene One), they are caged and forced to work in unsafe conditions. Thus, when Yank says: he made disdis cage! Steel! IT dont belong, dats what! Cages, cells, locks, bolts, barsdats what it means! holdin me down wit him at de top! (S6), it symbolizes steel as an oppressive tool for a capitalist system. Indeed, technological changes had been widening the gap between employees and employers and an upsurge of dissent emerged from this gap (Norton 583). Nowhere is this dissent more vivid than when Yank learns about the Wobblies (Scene Six). He sees this workers union as a way to seek revenge against Mildred and aristocrats in general. Referred to as a tough gang (Scene Six), the I. W. W. as a powerful force when The Hairy Ape was written. In fact, O’Neill joined the Marine Transport Workers Union of IWW, which was fighting a kind of guerrilla war for livable conditions with quick on the job direct action (Wikipedia). Clearly, ONeill was influenced by their ideas to promote worker solidarity in the revolutionary struggle to overthrow the employing class (Wikipedia). Another influence over ONeill was Karl Marx who predicted that workers worldwide would become so discontented that they would revolt and seize factories, farms, banks, and transportation lines (Norton 583). However, the only revolution that ONeill presents to us is the one going on inside Yanks mind. In Scene Seven, he has become so disillusioned with life that he protests to the police officer that his only crime was being born: I was born, see? I was born, get me! But it seems that his only way for release is to die; by the end of the play, Yank sinks so deep in depression that he chooses to die by the one creature he is constantly compared toan ape. Throughout the play, ONeill ironically notes that Yank takes on the physical posture of Auguste Rodins sculpture, The Thinker. This statue is one of the most recognizable symbols of thought. By taking the posture of this statue in the play, Yank shows his inept attempts at thinking because he does not know what it means to truly think. The closest he can get to The Thinker is to physically imitate the cultural symbol. When the stage directions call for taking the position of The Thinker, Yank cannot understand the problems he faces. As h e struggles to tink, in Scene One, he begins to look like the thinking statue. However, the other men look at him half- amusedly, as if they saw a joke. But for Yank it is no joke when he hears from Paddy how she [Mildred] shriveled away with her hands over her eyes to shut out the sight of him twas as if shed seen a great hairy ape escaped from the Zoo! Moreover, ONeill is suggesting how Yanks job has not only reduced him to an animal but also to a non-thinking piece of metal: Im part of de engines! Its me makes it hot! Its me makes it roar! Its me makes it move! Im steelsteelsteel! Im de muscles in steel, de punch behind it! (Scene One). It is only after he clashes with upper society that he begins to realize his low position in life. Their two worlds clash when Mildred first sees Yank pounding on his chest, gorilla-like (Scene Three). Mildred calls him a filthy beast and he hurls his shovel after them at the door which has just closed. It hits the steel bulkhead with a clang and falls clattering on the steel floor (Scene Three). The falling steel corresponds to Yanks falling spirit and it foreshadows his falling into despair at the end of the play. Another episode that shows his poor thinking skills is when he is thrown out of the I. W. W. He fails to grasp what has happened or why the union would throw him out. Because Yank cannot figure out the situations before him, he is incapable of functioning in a modern society. Works do not exist in isolation from their historical and cultural environments. Without a doubt, Literature has a relevancy that takes it beyond the confines of art for arts sake. Literature is a powerful force that has far reaching implications to life in general. Thus, through our analysis of ONeills The Hairy Ape, the New Historicist approach is an excellent method for analyzing and appreciating this and any other literary work. By fusing biography, politics, ideology, culture, and history, this technique revives the play from a time long gone to reawaken our senses in order to enrich and illuminate our overall understanding and appreciation of the work. Works Cited Danver, Steven. ed. Revolts, Protests, Demonstrations, and Rebellions in American History. Vol I. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011. Eugene ONeill. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , 26 Feb. 2013. Web. 2 May. 2013. Golden, Steve. The Influence of Postmodernism, Part 4: New Historicism. Web. 2 May. 2013 Magill, Frank N. Ed. Mourning Becomes Electra. Masterpieces of American Literature. New York: Harpercollins, 1993. 321-325. Print. Norton, Mary Beth. et al. A People amp; a Nation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2008. Print. ONeill, Eugene. The Hairy Ape. New York: Dover, 2005. Print. Weisstein, Ulrich. Ed. Expressionism As an International Literary Phenomenon. John Benjamins: Philadelphia, 2011. Print. Wobblies. Wikipedia: Th e Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , 2 May. 2013. Web. 3 May. 2013.

Stop Seeking Certainty.. Minows Response To Bork Essays - Intention

"Stop Seeking Certainty.." Minow's Response To Bork Philosophy Of Law In considering the views of Robert Bork and Martha Minow, I am impressed more by Minow. I will compare their respective views and arguments in an effort to show why I prefer the arguments of Minow to those of Bork. First though it is necessary to have a brief overview of Bork's philosophy. Bork is a firm believer in the originalist mode of Constitutional interpretation. Many different scholars may have differing views as to the meaning of the word originalism. Here, it is intended to define "an.. approach to constitutional adjudication that accords binding authority to the text of the Constitution or the intentions of it's adopters" (Lyons, pp. 329). This view can be subdivided into two categories. Those categories are the intentional and textual originalist views. The intention-based originalists argue that the original intent of the framers can be discerned from a neutral reading of the Constitution and peripherally related documents. The problem here is that the framers, the adopters, the ratifiers, and the electors all had possibly separate intent and it would be difficult to know all of their intentions. According to this view, the Constitutional text merely provides clues as to the intent of the above mentioned groups. So peripheral documents, such as the Federalist papers, are important clarifiers of the original intent. The second subdivision of orginalism is called the textual orginialist view. This view argues that the actual text of the Constitution is what is most important in terms of understanding Constitutional intent. Bork began as an intention theorist, then later changed and came to adopt the textual originalist view point. Neither subdivision of the view of orginalism is very popular today, as is evidenced by the fact that Bork was not confirmed by the Congress when he was nominated for the Supreme Court. Bork argues that by reading the text, and figuring out what the public understanding of the Constitution was at the time of it's writing, we can discern what the Constitution actually means. The problem here is obvious. It is very difficult to know what the public understanding at the time of the enactment of the Constitution was. It is even difficult to know if there was in fact a public understanding at all. It seems possible that there did not exist a public awareness of all of the facets of the Constitution. Bork argues that new Amendments to the Constitution are appropriate and permissible, that these are simply additions of new original ideas. However, he is opposed to constitutional "revisionism" of any kind. Here the term revisionism is intended to mean any reauthoring of constitutional principles by any governmental body other than the legislature. I think that Bork was specifically leery of the judiciary performing revisionist acts. He seemed to be more leery of a Judiciary branch performing "revisionism" than he was of the executive branch performing such acts. Bork said "The theory [of Constitutional interpretation] must therefore enable us to say what is the limit of the judge's legitimate authority..." (Bork. pp.54). Bork argues for a kind of enforced judicial restraint. Here, when I use the phrase "judicial restraint", I mean a strict adherence to precedents, the effects of which are so ingrained in our society as to make overturning them destructive to the fabric of our society at large. Bork goes on to argue for the importance of the neutrality principle as it relates to constitutional interpretation. According to Bork, a judge should make a decision based only on an original intent understanding of a given law in a given case. No personal pr eferences should come into play. Instead, legal principles should be applied equally across all cases which those principles encompass. It is Bork's assertion that his philosophy of original understanding can supply neutrality in deriving, defining and applying any legal principle. (Bork, pp. 53) So, on to the distinctions between deriving, defining and applying. On the issue of derivation, Bork argues that via his philosophical view of original intent, it is possible to derive the meaning of any given Constitutional principle and that if any given situation is not covered by the Constitution, that situation is beyond the scope of the power and scope of the Courts jurisdiction, and thereby leaves the court "quite properly powerless.." (Bork pp.53). On the issue of defining a principle, Bork argues again that this is quite possible within his framework and that all judges need to do in order define the breadth of a given principle is to take a historical look at the events a given principle concerned itself with at the time of the principles

Pros and Cons of Part-Time MBA Programs

Pros and Cons of Part-Time MBA Programs There are many different types of MBA programs - from part-time and full-time programs to accelerated and dual programs. A part-time MBA program is designed primarily for students who are only able to attend class part-time. It is important to understand that the words part-time dont mean barely any time. If you commit to a part-time program, you will still need to make a significant time commitment to school - even if you dont have to attend class every single day. It is not unusual for part-time students to spend more than three to four hours each day on MBA schoolwork and activities. Part-time MBA programs are popular. More than half of all MBA students attend school part-time, according to a recent study from the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business  (AACSB). But that doesnt mean that part-time study is for everyone. Before you commit yourself to earning your degree through part-time study, you should be aware of all of the pros and cons of part-time MBA programs. Pros of Part-Time MBA Programs There are many advantages to studying part-time. Some of the biggest pros of part-time MBA programs include: Part-time MBA programs are more flexible for working professionals; classes are usually scheduled outside normal business hours.Some part-time MBA programs require fewer course credits than their full-time counterparts.Part-time programs are typically favored by employers who offer  tuition reimbursement.Many part-time MBA programs schedule courses all year long.Part-time programs tend to cause less strain financially because tuition is sometimes cheaper.Part-time MBA students can apply what they learn as they learn it.There are many high-quality part-time MBA programs inside and outside the United States. Read more about the best part-time MBA programs. Cons of Part-Time MBA Programs Although there are advantages to part-time MBA programs, there are drawbacks as well. The biggest cons of part-time MBA programs include: Not every school offers a part-time MBA program, which means you may not be able to attend your first school of choice.Some part-time programs offer fewer course selections than their full-time counterparts.Part-time programs require fewer class hours each week but sometimes take as long as two to five years to complete.Credits that are earned through a part-time MBA program are not always transferable to other programs.Many part-time MBA programs schedule courses all year long.Working while you earn your part-time MBA can be exhausting - especially if it will take you more than two years to earn your degree.Not all part-time MBA programs offer a study abroad option or international experience, which is increasingly valuable in todays global business world. Should You Study Part-Time? Part-time programs may be the perfect solution for students who want to work while they earn their degree, but they arent for everyone. Be sure to take time to evaluate all of your business degree program options, including accelerated MBA programs, specialized masters programs, and executive MBA programs, before you commit yourself to any one program option.

Oreopithecus - Facts and Figures

Oreopithecus - Facts and Figures Name: Oreopithecus (Greek for mountain ape); pronounced ORE-ee-oh-pith-ECK-us Habitat: Islands of southern Europe Historical Epoch: Late Miocene (10-5 million years ago) Size and Weight: About four feet tall and 50-75 pounds Diet: Plants, nuts and fruit Distinguishing Characteristics: Longer arms than legs; monkey-like feet About Oreopithecus Most of the prehistoric primates that preceded modern humans led lives that were nasty, brutish and short, but this doesnt appear to have been the case with Oreopithecusbecause this chimpanzee-like mammal had the good fortune to live on isolated islands off the Italian coast, where it was relatively free from predation. A good clue to the comparatively trouble-free existence of Oreopithecus is that paleontologists have unearthed about 50 complete skeletons, making this one of the best understood of all ancient apes. As so often happens with animals restricted to island habitats, Oreopithecus possessed a strange mix of features, including strong, gripping, monkey-like feet, an ape-like head with teeth reminiscent of the earliest humans, and (last but not least) longer arms than legs, a clue that this primate spent much of its time swinging from branch to branch. (Theres also some tantalizing evidence that Oreopithecus may have been able to walk upright for short periods of time, which has thrown a wrench into the usual timelines for hominid evolution.) Oreopithecus met its doom when plunging sea levels connected its islands with the mainland, whence its ecosystem was invaded by the mammalian megafauna of continental Europe. By the way, the name Oreopithecus has nothing to do with the famous cookie; oreo is the Greek root for mountain or hill, though this hasnt prevented some paleontologists from affectionately referencing Oreopithecus as the cookie monster.

Explain the significance of legal personality. as part of your Essay

Explain the significance of legal personality. as part of your explanation you should identify why certain categories of people - Essay Example Consequently, some humans are assigned the label of limited legal personality, having limited rights in comparison with other humans. For example, law does not allow a bankrupt to become a director of a company, or a magistrate or a Member of Parliament. Also, mentally ill person has an insufficient legal capacity; consequently, he or she is disallowed to enter into a contractual relationship with any party. In the following pages, this paper is going to explain natural and artificial legal personalities and limitations on some legal personalities. Natural legal personality with beginning and end of life A natural legal personality comes with certain legal rights and obligations. Such legal rights are assigned to natural persons who qualify to have a legal capacity. The legal capacity is considerably helpful while deciding the rights and duties; depending on different social roles such as father and husband, employer and employee, voter and householder. However, law on the basis of o ccupation, age, sex, income, nationality and other relevant identifications that can be considered appropriate and relevant by the law makers, ascertain legal rights and obligations. Legal rights can only be assigned to living persons. However, some law makers may argue that an unborn foetus can have life as he or she can breathe. But, still the law has not assigned the legal status to an unborn foetus of being a legal person. Law has not defined death. There is not an exact definition that can bring an end to a natural legal personality. In history, heart beating has been used to ascertain the occurrence of death when the heart beating stops. However, the latest medicine advancement has also ensured the functioning of heart with the use of machine. Case law: R v Malcherek and Steel [1981] 1 WLR 690 Facts: A woman was stabbed by a man. She was kept alive with the help of a life-support machine, however her brain was dead. Held: Lord Chief Justice Lane, in the Court of Appeal, define d death. In the verdict, the Lord Lane remarked that death legally occurs when by the irreversible death of the brain stem, whose function is to direct the basic body function like breathing. After death-legal personality Law has not defined an unlimited type of natural legal personality. And, this limited legal personality is relevant even after the occurrence of death. The testator, a person who wrote the will, may be allowed to receive the same legal rights after his or her death in case he or she wants to distribute property according to the wishes. The court will ensure the according implementation of the terms mentioned in the will document. In this way, a possibility of dispute is considerably reduced which normally occurs in the process of property sharing. Natural legal personality: limitations Some legal personalities have limitations. And these limitations do not allow them to have the same sort of legal rights and duties given to other persons. It is their insufficient l egal capacity that disallows them to enter into a legally binding contractual relationship. Bankrupts A person who is unable to pay liabilities is declared as bankrupt by the court. As a result of such bankruptcy, the person is disallowed to become an MP, or a magistrate, or a director of a company. Mentally ill Mentally ill person has an insufficient legal capacity to understand the resultant implications of his actions. Consequently, the law does not

Motivations for Organizational Change for Sustainability Essay

Motivations for Organizational Change for Sustainability - Essay Example Although organizational change varies from one business context to another, organizational change adopts a general definition that refers to a specific change that has direct and significant effects in the management, operation, and output of an organization. Any variations in the way an organization operates and the way it is actually supposed to operate, leads to organizational change to ensure future successful growth and environmental preservation. Indeed the pace of organizational change is rapidly increasing courtesy of the new technology, social pressure, new lifestyles, environmental responsibility, and new ways of doing business. Many researches and model try to discuss organizational change towards sustainability. However, although change is aimed for the benefit of an organization, many stakeholders in organization are usually nervous and will tend to resist change consciously or subconsciously basing their fears on the uncertainty of the proposed changes. Hence, Corporate s face many challenges in initiating and implementing sustainable organization changes. An effective organizational change must be timely, sustainable, inclusive, motivational, done in the best professional way, strategic, environmental friendly, and enjoys the best organizational change management. ... An organizational change may lead to redundancy, change in working hours, transfers, promotions, retraining, and even loss of job opportunities (University of Western Australia, 2008, p.1). A change in the corporation may also lead to significant changes in the operation size, skills required, and composition of the corporation. There are different types of organizational change. An organizational change can be organizational wide, subsystem, transformational, incremental, remedial, or developmental (McNamara, 2012, p.1). The knowledge on the type of change helps all stake holders stick to the scope, objective and retain scope and perspective of the organizational change during the actual process of changing. An organization change process will involve different departments in an organization. Departments involved in the organizational change process include the targeted department, related departments, IT department which will build and operate the changed system, the finance depart ment that will support the entire process, customer-facing staff department that will apply the changes in customer relations, and the management that will oversee the organization change process (Wallace, 2007, p.1). However, the most important of the entire process of change is the organization change management. Change management is the application of a set of processes that ensure there is a systematic control and implementation of the proposed changes within the organizations’ emblem (University of Adelaide, 2012, p.4). An organizations management aims at designing an effective strategy that will overcome resistance from stakeholders and hence increase their engagement towards a successful

Discuss the Effect of Islam upon West Africa Essay Example for Free

Discuss the Effect of Islam upon West Africa Essay Change Over Time Essay Assignment #1The camel, with its ability to travel long distances without water and carry heavy loads, facilitated trans-Saharan communication. During the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islamic conquerors had added North Africa to the dar al-Islam. By the end of the eighth century CE, Muslim merchants had crossed the Sahara and initiated commercial relations with Sub-Saharan West Africa and by the beginning of the second millennium, Islam had become entrenched in West African life. Islam dramatically changed West Africa culturally, politically, and economically in the time period between 1000 CE and 1750 CE, but many staples of West African society remained the same. Economically, Islam ushered a new era of economic prosperity into West Africa. The adoption of Islam by West African states provided them with common ground upon which states such as Mali greatly expanded their gold trade to encompass Arab and Mediterranean nations. Established Muslim trade routes facilitated the huge increase in the volume of African trade. Commercial cities sprung up across West Africa, with commerce increasing Timbuktus population to 100,000. In the twelfth century, Muslim merchants introduced cotton, rice, and citrus fruits to West Africa; by the sixteenth century cotton was the main textile produced in West Africa. European demand for cotton textiles ensured that West Africa would remain economically prosperous. Islamic merchants expanded the African slave trade to a continental level, providing Europeans with a framework upon which to build the catastrophic Atlantic slave trade, replacing small scale tribal slavery with huge state economies built entirely around capturing slaves and selling them to foreign nations. However, despite these huge changes in economic methods and volume, West African states relied heavily upon trade as the principle form of economic support throughout periods of Islamic influence. The increase in trade with Islamic merchants between 1000 and 1750 led to the permeation of Islamic culture among West African peoples. Islamic rulers built large mosques and universities where people could learn about Islam, as well as other areas of knowledge. These universities spread literacy within West African society. Islam was generally tolerant of traditional values, such as polygamy. This allowed it greater popularity than  Christianity, and decreased resistance to conversion. Islam was not forced upon citizens by their kings, but rather was voluntarily encouraged. Despite this, many people adopted Islam, especially those who interacted with Muslim merchants. However, many of those who adopted Islam did not adopt Islam in its original form, but rather combined it with traditional religious beliefs to create a syncretic religion. There was much social turmoil among purists, such as the Fulani, and those who practiced syncretic Islam. Despite the large Islamic influence in the area, many chose not to adopt a syncretic faith and rather kept their traditional beliefs. The integration of Islamic culture into West Africa, as well as the economic prosperity that Islamic trade brought West Africa, led to the creation of large centralized states. As opposed to the small kingdoms, such as the kingdom of Ghana, that the first Islamic merchants encountered in West Africa, by the fifteenth century two large centralized empires had emerged. Islamic influence played a large part in the creation of these large empires. Firstly, the revenue created by integration of West Africa into Islamic trade allowed West African rulers to create and support large standing armies. These armies ensured that these empires could protect their peoples and sources of income, as well as exert their influence. Secondly, Islamic law, known as Sharia, introduced to West Africa allowed for unified rule. Previously, varying tribal laws had caused disorder and fragmentation, as well as discontent. Islamic law facilitated and demanded the creation of large centralized empires. However, Islam itself did not necessarily become the exclusive religion of these empires; many, indeed most, citizens of these empires clung to and practiced their traditional pagan religious beliefs. Following the collapse of these two empires, West African political structure returned to the small regional kingdoms that had been West African norm before Muslim merchants crossed the Sahara. Overall, the Islam greatly, sometimes even completely, changed cultural, political, and economic environments in West Africa between 1000 CE and 1750 CE. Examples of this change include the introduction of centralized kingdoms, trans-Saharan trade, and Muslim values. Despite this great change, many elements of West African society, such as popular religion, dependence  on trade, and basic values remained the same despite Islamic influence up through 1750 CE. Near the end of that period, Africa began to be colonized by European nations, and fell under European influence.