Network Security Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Network Security - Assignment Example Information security entails the adoption of specific measures that are supposed to prevent the unauthorized access, manipulation, use or the denial of access to any data, information, or capabilities that will ensure confidentiality (Douligeris and Serpanos, 2007). All these measures should be implemented to ensure the security of all the resources within the organization. Organizations nowadays have greatly relied on the various network technologies that ensure efficient data communications between different departments, at the same time ensuring that communication channels are secure. The expansion of an organization results into more resources being acquired in terms of new computers, printers, telephones, communication channels, hardwares and software’s and also the adoption of sophisticated network architectures. This results into an increased concern for information security within the organization to ensure that only the authorized personnel access the resources. Quest ion 1. The question describes the main security issues, the principles of public key encryption, and the role of certification authority as follows: Security issues facing the expansion of the organization Expansion of the organization will result into a rise in the demand of various resources. More hardware and software will be acquired, more people will be employed, and the network architecture to be used and various protocols will change to meet the organizational needs. Various security issues will arise; in physical security, all the tangible assets within the organization such as computers (both personal and laptops), network printers, telephones, storage media, people, network cables, and servers will face a security threat. Indeed, each of the organizations assets faces a security threat from within (internal) and from outside the organization (external). Security issues that will arise from within the organization (internal attacks) include access attacks such as eavesdropp ing (listening to a conversation that one is not part of) by fellow employees or through wireless networks, and snooping (looking through information files). Others include interception of transit information, unauthorized access to computers by employees, computer attacks by viruses, worms, Trojans, internal hackers and theft of hardware from within the organization (Maiwald, 2003). External attacks include hackers and cyber terrorists, and malware. The organization needs to address the measures that will be used to ensure security of both information, physical hardware, internal and external attacks are checked. Internal threats from employees are both intentional and accidental, where an employee can eavesdrop on another employee, hence gaining access to some information during conversation. In addition, employees can forge passwords of their colleagues and hence gain access to their computers, use, modify, and transfer information to other unauthorized members outside the organi zation. Moreover, employees may bring external or foreign insecure hardware into the organization, resulting into virus infection and transmission. Lastly, employees could steal portable small size hardwares from the organization. Information and communication within the organization will be affected in one way or another. There might be lots of network traffic caused by attacks on

Propsal Essay revison Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Propsal revison - Essay Example The immediate effects anticipated in these circumstances are extreme reduction in the ingenuity and creativity among the working group often leading to lower productivity levels. Such type of situations could also result in the lowering loyalty to their task that ultimately causes radical reduction in the profits. Various successful initiatives have been reported across the world towards the retention rate of the employees in the organizations, ex: study at NASA. The aerospace industry faces Herculean tasks of retaining a satisfied team with very few graduating into the employment scene from the schools. Therefore the committed and capable team being forced to look out for alternate employment the shortage of adequate talent and high pressures on meeting the specific business targets. The research on NASA Marshall Space Flight Centre shows that practicing appropriate and innovative ways to retain their employs is fruitful (Herdey et al, 2008). Ineffective understanding and communication are the reasons that often turn employees restless and lead to disastrous outputs. Such a scenario finally ends in job switching, where he hopes to have better environment of work. To take hold of such migration across organizations, different techniques are practiced to boost motivation. And from a large pool of different methods, incentive systems are found to be most widely practiced. But most often the incentive systems make the employees to orient them towards the inventive component rather than achieving organizational goal. Also, an effective incentive, that promotes retention, drastically varies across persons, teams, companies, organizations and customers (Pavla, 2002). Quanta Energized Services, largest electric service contractor which provides total system solutions to the new challenges emerging in the electrical utilities sector resulting from deregulation and open transmission. The major business activities are related to the maintenance,

Organisation Structure Essay Example for Free

Organisation Structure Essay The structure is totally centralized. The strategic leader makes all key decisions and most communication is done by one on one conversations. It is particularly useful for new (entrepreneurial) business as it enables the founder to control growth and development. They are usually based on traditional domination or charismatic domination in the sense of Max Webers tripartite classification of authority. [edit] Bureaucratic structures Weber (1948, p. 214) gives the analogy that â€Å"the fully developed bureaucratic mechanism compares with other organizations exactly as does the machine compare with the non-mechanical modes of production. Precision, speed, unambiguity, †¦ strict subordination, reduction of friction and of material and personal costs- these are raised to the optimum point in the strictly bureaucratic administration. †[5] Bureaucratic structures have a certain degree of standardization. They are better suited for more complex or larger scale organizations. They usually adopt a tall structure. Then tension between bureaucratic structures and non-bureaucratic is echoed in Burns and Stalker[6] distinction between mechanistic and organic structures. It is not the entire thing about bureaucratic structure. It is very much complex and useful for hierarchical structures organization, mostly in tall organizations. [edit] Post-bureaucratic The term of post bureaucratic is used in two senses in the organizational literature: one generic and one much more specific [7]. In the generic sense the term post bureaucratic is often used to describe a range of ideas developed since the 1980s that specifically contrast themselves with Webers ideal type bureaucracy. This may include total quality management, culture management and matrix management, amongst others. None of these however has left behind the core tenets of Bureaucracy. Hierarchies still exist, authority is still Webers rational, legal type, and the organization is still rule bound. Heckscher, arguing along these lines, describes them as cleaned up bureaucracies [8], rather than a fundamental shift away from bureaucracy. Gideon Kunda, in his classic study of culture management at Tech argued that the essence of bureaucratic control the formalisation, codification and enforcement of rules and regulations does not change in principle.. it shifts focus from organizational structure to the organizations culture. Another smaller group of theorists have developed the theory of the Post-Bureaucratic Organization. [8], provide a detailed discussion which attempts to describe an organization that is fundamentally not bureaucratic. Charles Heckscher has developed an ideal type, the post-bureaucratic organization, in which decisions are based on dialogue and consensus rather than authority and command, the organization is a network rather than a hierarchy, open at the boundaries (in direct contrast to culture management); there is an emphasis on meta-decision making rules rather than decision making rules. This sort of horizontal decision making by consensus model is often used in housing cooperatives, other cooperatives and when running a non-profit or community organization. It is used in order to encourage participation and help to empower people who normally experience oppression in groups. Still other theorists are developing a resurgence of interest in complexity theory and organizations, and have focused on how simple structures can be used to engender organizational adaptations.

The Organisational Learning and the Learning Organisation Essay Example for Free

The Organisational Learning and the Learning Organisation Essay Schools are in business to promote learning; amongst both adults and pupils. But do they as organisations learn? Is it in fact possible for an organisation as a whole to learn? Even if there is evidence that individuals within organisations are learning, this does not automatically add up to collective learning: There are many cases in which organisations know less than their members. There are even cases in which the organisations cannot seem to learn what every member knows. (Argyris and Schà ¶n 2000:309) How schools learn to implement complex and multiple change successfully has always been of central concern to those interested in school improvement: making the link between organisational learning and school improvement is not a new idea. Roland Barth claims that school improvements main task is all about learning: School improvement is an effort to determine and provide, from without and within, conditions under which the adults and youngsters who inhabit schools will promote and sustain learning among themselves. (Barth 1999:45) In England especially, schools are under pressure to accommodate and manage change and are constantly dealing with public scrutiny of their effectiveness. Issues they are required to deal with include: a revised National Curriculum, performance management, revised criteria for OFSTED inspections, school self-evaluation, standards for head teachers and subject leaders, as well as the ongoing requirement to improve attainment for all pupils. All the activities that constitute learning are a fundamental contribution not just to improvement and performance, but also to an ethos and spirit of community in a school.( Stoll, 2005, 62-69)   We outline the importance of organisational learning to school improvement, and highlight the role of feedback, suggesting ways in which its role could be developed. The five questions we ask are:   1 What is organisational learning?   2 Why is it important to school improvement?   3 What are the processes that influence organisational learning?   4 What is the contribution of feedback?   5 How could its role in organisational learning be enhanced? What Is Organisational Learning? A definition of a learning organisation as it relates to education is: â€Å"A group of people pursuing common purposes (and individual purposes as well) with a collective commitment to regularly weighing the value of those purposes, modifying them when that makes sense, and continuously developing more effective and efficient ways of accomplishing those purposes.† (Leithwood and Aitken 2003:41) This definition suggests certain basic activities need to happen for organisational learning to be able to occur: the pursuit, review and modification of common aims; and opportunities to identify, articulate and design more effective, efficient ways of accomplishing these purposes. It can be easy for a school to lose sight of its primary purpose of fostering and encouraging learning, particularly in times of increased complexity and requirement to respond to external demands for improvement. As a recent participant on one of our courses put it: the core beliefs and goals about learning in my school †¦ have been forgotten in the mass of pressures we are under at the moment. School improvement research distinguishes more effective and more rapidly improving schools by the ability of practitioners to stay in touch with the schools core values, beliefs and goals and take charge of externally driven change rather than being controlled by it (Senge 1999; Rosenholtz 2000; Stoll and Fink 1999; Gray et al. 2003, 141-53). This is, in Senges words, because they are constantly enhancing their capacity to create their own future and know that it is in their hands. This mind-set is a cornerstone of effective improvement efforts. Organisational learning has been described as a dynamic and complex phenomenon best understood by considering learning processes and effects as influencing each other in a reciprocal way (Cousins 1998:220-1). Through collective inquiry, school staff and their communities engage in processing of internal or external information that challenges them to reflect on and adapt assumptions underpinning their practice. It also helps them to understand how they can influence their own destiny and create the necessary knowledge. In this sense, the basic meaning of a learning organisation is one that is continually expanding its capacity to create its future (Senge 1999:14). The Processes That Influence Organisational Learning Our own work suggests four particular processes that can crucially influence the organisational learning of schools. Where these can be deliberately and strategically developed, this facilitates the appropriate conditions and climate within which school improvement can operate. These four processes are: working actively with the context; processing, creating and using strategic knowledge; developing learning-oriented cultural norms; and systems thinking. (Leithwood, K. and Louis, 1998, 119-23) Working Actively With The Context The articulation of goals that are shared by all stakeholders in a school, including pupils, is not enough in a rapidly changing and demanding context. More than twenty years ago, Argyris and Schà ¶n (2000) argued that the key challenge is not to help an organisation become more effective at performing a stable task in the light of stable purposes, but to help an organisation restructure its purposes and redefine its task in the face of a changing environment (p. 320). To do this, schools need to connect more effectively with the world beyond them: Schools cannot shut their gates and leave the outside world on the doorstep, they can no longer pretend that their walls will keep the outside world at bay.   (Hargreaves and Fullan 1998:7) Being able to read the context is a critical skill in effective school improvement. Schools, as other systems, must have the capacity to sense, monitor and scan significant aspects of their environment (Morgan 1999:87). Intelligent schools know their survival can depend on their sensitive response and adaptation to the environment of which they are a part. This contextual intelligence has been defined as one of nine key intelligences a school needs to have (MacGilchrist et al. 2002). Working to develop and adapt school goals in the light of contextual messages is a crucial purpose for the organisational learning that schools continually need to address. (MacBeath, 1998, 311-22) Currently, insufficient notice is being paid to the limited opportunity and power schools feel they have to attend to this basic process. Indeed, the predominant emphasis on the delivery of the external reform agenda paradoxically distracts many schools from initiating their own learning and this results in a loss of both collective self-esteem and of feeling in charge of change (Learmonth and Reed 2000). Processing, Creating And Using Strategic Knowledge The importance of strategic thinking, planning and action in school improvement together constitute a particular knowledge base required for organisational learning. Louis (1998) argues that what distinguishes organisational learning processes from the notion of acquisition, storage and retrieval inherent in some definitions of individual learning, is an additional step of collective knowledge creation: Schools cannot learn until there is explicit or implicit agreement about what they know about their students, teaching and learning, and about how to change. (p. 1086) She describes three sources from which this knowledge is drawn: teachers individual knowledge about the curriculum and their own pedagogical practice; knowledge created when their practice is systematically examined; and knowledge that comes from others, advisers, colleagues, inspectors. Through a combination of dialogue and deliberation, this information is explored, interpreted and distributed among the school community creating collective knowledge and helping powerful learning systems in a school to develop. (Cousins, 2000, 305-33) The process is complex but can also increase the potential for organisational learning in a range of ways. Five assertions have recently been made about the contribution that a strategic approach can make to school improvement (Reed 2000). These are: 1 A strategic approach is underpinned by an explicit commitment to fundamental values and goals in a school.   2 A strategic approach is not just about putting a particular plan into operation. It is a way of working with different levels, goals and expectations at the same time.   3 A strategic approach involves a complex combination of skills thinking, planning, doing, analysing, judging, reflecting and giving and receiving feedback.   4 A strategic approach is more than a way of achieving coherence. It is a social process that needs to take account of how those involved are feeling and experiencing life in a school as well as supporting them in investing in their own learning.   5 A strategic approach builds knowledge and interest about what is happening as it goes along so that everyone can learn about the process and work together to achieve the agreed goals. Developing Learning-Oriented Cultural Norms Once schools have identified key aspects of their environment, they must be able to relate this information to the operating norms that guide their current behaviour. Norms are the unspoken rules for what is regarded as customary or acceptable behaviour and action within the school. They are also a window into the deeply held beliefs and values of the school: its culture (Stoll 2003). Leithwood, Jantzi and Steinbach (1998) found that school culture appeared to be the dominant influence on collective learning, more so than vision and mission, structure, strategies, and policy and resources. Rait (2003) explains: An organizations culture embodies an informal structure and normative system that influence information flow and other organizational processes. Culture may implicitly or explicitly delineate the boundaries of what is considered proper and improper action. (p. 83) Norms are critical because Life within a given culture flows smoothly only insofar as ones behaviour conforms with unwritten codes. Disrupt these norms and the ordered reality of life inevitably breaks down (Morgan 2002:139). Norms, therefore, shape reactions to internally or externally proposed or imposed improvements and, indeed, to organisational learning. Cultivating learning-oriented norms is, therefore, essential because the acceptance of changes by a school depends on the fit between the norms embedded in the changes and those within the schools own culture (Sarason 1999). Knowledge needs to have a socially constructed, shared basis for organisational learning to occur (Louis 2004). If norms of individualism and self-reliance exist, and collaboration is not valued, the necessary team learning is at risk. Similarly, schools with norms of contentment, avoidance of change, goal diffusion, top-down leadership, conformity, nostalgia, blame, congeniality rather than collegiality, and denial (Stoll and Fink 1998), are less likely to engage in organisational learning. Stoll and Fink (1999) identify ten norms that appeared to underpin the work of improving schools: shared goals; responsibility for success; collegiality; continuous improvement; lifelong learning; risk taking; support; mutual respect; openness; celebration and humour. They highlight the human and cultural dimension of change. Two of these merit further discussion for organisational learning. The first, collegiality, involves mutual sharing and assistance, an orientation towards the school as a whole. It is spontaneous, voluntary, development-oriented, unscheduled, and unpredictable. Little (1999) identifies four types of collegial relations. She views three as weaker forms: scanning and story telling, general help and assistance, and sharing. The fourth form, joint work, is most likely to lead to improvement and, we would argue, organisational learning. It covers team teaching, mentoring, action research, peer coaching, planning and mutual observation and feedback. These activities create greater interdependence, collective commitment, shared responsibility, and, perhaps most important, greater readiness to participate in the difficult business of review and critiques (Fullan and Hargreaves 2000, xii). The second norm, risk taking, is also critical for organisational learning. Time for experimentation, trial and error and handling failure are essential parts of learning. They symbolise a willingness to try something different, to consider new approaches, and to move into uncharted territory. The other norms support, mutual respect, openness, and celebration and humour set the important climate that enables risk taking to occur without danger. School improvement depends on the use of different mental maps of a school and the creative pursuit of understanding how the whole (the system) and the constituent parts (the subsystems) are relating to each other. Organisational learning occurs where the interdependency of parts and whole, systems and subsystems can be enhanced to enable collective activity to be more effective and satisfying for everyone involved. Systems thinking has been described as a discipline for seeing wholes (Senge 1999:68). It is a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than linear cause-effect chains, for seeing patterns and processes of change rather than a static snapshot. The capacity to see patterns and discern connections between seemingly unconnected events emerges as a key feature of organisational learning from both our experience and the literature: A systems approach at least helps an investigator understand that the problem is to discover the underlying connections and interdependencies (Vaill 1999:108). It is also a crucial tool for improvement efforts, a basis for taking charge of change and feeling more in control. Systems thinking enables a school to analyse more deeply the causal factors that underlie their concerns and difficulties especially where linear deductions of causality fail to get at the root issues. In short, it means it is more important to focus on circles of influence rather than straight lines (Senge 1999). We now take up this point in relation to the role of feedback. One way we have come to understand the contribution of feedback to organisational learning is to take as a starting point Senges (1999) definition of feedback. He uses the discourse of learning and feedback described as loops. Feedback as it used here, is different to positive feedback meaning making encouraging remarks or negative feedback meaning potential bad news. It is a broader concept, meaning any reciprocal flow of influence (p. 75) encompassing the notion that every influence is both cause and effect. Indeed, Senge argues that the practice of systems thinking and organisational learning starts with understanding feedback. We want to present a view of feedback as an organisational process that itself can be learned about and used as well as having the other, more dialogue-based functions that feedback can have in the school community. OConnor and McDermott (2002) describe feedback as thinking in circles; hence the notion of feedback loops: the consequences of our actions coming back to us and so influencing what happens next. This concept of feedback challenges immediately any notion that organisational learning can be achieved by either linear or mechanistic means: it needs processing and use of information. Feedback, then, in this sense is the return of information to influence the next step (OConnor and McDermott 2002:26). Two basic types of feedback loop have been identified. The first is reinforcing feedback. This describes a situation where change continues to change and grow: a response to something happening makes it happen more frequently. An example from school life could be a response to a high number of exclusions. (Goldstein, 2000, 313-15) The school puts in place a procedure for sanctions and rewards, and this results in further exclusions. The feedback from this situation, then, suggests that the procedure for sanctions and rewards itself needs tightening up which, again, unexpectedly causes more exclusions to occur. The second is balancing feedback, which reduces change and restores balance. A balancing feedback loop is where the response to something happening makes it happen less (Johnstone 2004:12-13). An example would be a primary school that on analysing its KS1 results finds that the poor quality of spelling is contributing to low attainment. A plan implemented across the Key Stage for addressing spelling more systematically with pupils and their parents enhances their capability, reduces their errors and significantly raises attainment. Schools as systems are experiencing feedback loops in this way all the time, and to the extent that they are aware of and working with reinforcing and balancing loops, and are learning how to manage them, they will be in the process of genuinely becoming a learning organisation. (Anderson, 2003, 235-58) Currently, a focus on the analysis of attainment data and making causal links to practice in the classroom can provide good examples of use of feedback. Significant connections are being made from one part of the school (the data) to another (the learning and teaching programme), and in the process organisational learning can occur. Morgan (2002) and others have reminded us of a key element in organisational learning processes which may influence the direction a reinforcing cycle takes towards growth or decline. Organisations may display adaptive learning which solves problems at an operational level: they scan the environment, compare against the operating targets, and initiate appropriate action. In so doing, they show the ability to detect and correct deviations from the norm. Many organisations are quite proficient at this including bureaucratic, fragmented organisations where employees are not encouraged to think for themselves and interest in what the organisation is doing is marginal. However, single loop learning may keep an organisation focused on the wrong goals and prevent success in a changing environment. Effective organisations require double loop learning in which the crucial extra ingredient is to question whether the operating targets are relevant and whether the norms are appropriate. (Chaston,   2001, 139-51) This is generative learning which solves fundamental problems in a creative way and facilitates survival in periods of change. Morgan suggests that when people are unable or not prepared to challenge underlying assumptions, The existence of single-loop learning systems, especially when used as controls over employees, may prevent double-loop learning from occurring (2002:90). The capacity in a school to reflect on its own learning while it is using the information provided by feedback is crucial. Ertmer and Newby (1999, 1-24) outline the characteristics of an expert learner, which include the capacity to regulate ones own learning, to self-monitor. It is possible to see that this capacity in a school, to use and reflect on feedback processes, is a key capability in a learning organisation. The following example illustrates the value of questioning while using feedback. A school joined one of our school improvement projects with the view that a group of Key Stage 2 pupils were, in the staffs description, restless and lacking concentration in their lessons because they had poor listening skills. It was to be the focus for their project. These were not pupils with any obvious learning difficulties. The teachers stated clearly that they wanted to improve the listening skills of these pupils. We cautioned them not to jump to conclusions before they had carried out a careful systemic audit and analysis of the context in which this problem was manifesting itself. (Fiol, 2002, 803-13) They reluctantly agreed. What emerged from the audit was a very different kind of causal picture. The process of gathering information showed that this group were actually very good listeners in settings that sufficiently caught their attention and enabled them to access the curriculum in ways that made sense to them. Through examining the wider system that the pupils were part of, it seemed that this group of pupils were signalling through their lack of engagement that schemes of work and teaching processes were inadequately differentiated for them. (Huber, 2000, 88-115)   Improving this practice was the focus of a very successful project in the school. The teachers learnt to look at their whole situation in a more sophisticated way instead of jumping too quickly to conclusions based in their minds on a linear and more simplistic model of the relationship between learning, teaching and achievement. The situation these teachers found themselves in is a very good example of reinforcing feedback. The more the pupils had a learning diet that did not meet their needs, the more they did not listen. When the school gave them a more carefully designed programme of activities the listening skills of the pupils were shown to be perfectly satisfactory. The balancing feedback process had produced the results that they wanted and staff had learnt a great deal about those pupils, their needs and most importantly about the impact of their teaching.( Kim, 2003, 37-50) It has been claimed that school improvement is an inquiry not a formula and that the successful structure for school improvement will have the nature of a clinical science, where communities of educators treat their best ideas as stepping stones to better ones (Joyce et al. 2003:2). The Making Belfast Work, Raising School Standards (MBW RSS) initiative can be seen as exemplifying such a process. Individual schools involved in the initiative engaged in self-evaluation and review as an integral part of the initiative. (Learmonth, 1998, 78-85) The fourteen schools also worked together during the three years on the project sharing experiences and approaches, creating a wider learning community outside the individual school. The LEAs engagement in the process was threefold; manager, participant and an evaluator of the change process. (Mumford, 2000, 24-31) The external evaluation, however, provided the LEA with an objective framework within which to consider organisational learning at a range of levels. Managing educational change and the resultant organisational learning is [a] multivariate business that requires us to think of and address more than one factor at a time. While theory and practice of successful educational change do make sense, and do point to clear guidelines for action, it is always the case that particular actions in particular situations require integrating the more general knowledge of change with detailed knowledge of the politics, personalities and history peculiar to the setting in question. (Fullan 2000: xii) In evaluating the MBW RSS initiative it is important to acknowledge the context of civil unrest which for over a generation has been an everyday fact of life for people living in the city. Recent political initiatives to move forward the peace process have been welcomed by all who are concerned about the quality of life in Belfast although uncertainty about the future remains evident. The term feedback, in education, is perhaps most commonly used in classroom and school contexts. (Sadler, 2003, 877-909)   It can, however, be used across the education system to promote organisational and institutional learning. We focus on the role of the external evaluation as a method of providing feedback to   †¢ increase understanding of the various impacts of an educational improvement initiative; improve awareness of the processes of implementation at school and LEA level; and provide the basis for analysis of planning, implementation of future initiatives, enhancing the capacity of the LEA to evaluate its own organisational learning with regard to future initiatives involving clusters or individual schools. The extent to which an organisation can learn from feedback from an outside evaluation depends on a number of factors. The very act of commissioning shows a willingness to be scrutinised and a desire to learn from an experience. In the MBW RSS there was a climate within both the LEA and schools which suggested that they could effect change and raise standards. Participants were willing to ask difficult questions and challenge practice. A high degree of co-operation among participants and an honest willingness to talk about strengths and weaknesses were important prerequisites for organisational learning. (Prange, 2003, 23-43) However, many school improvement initiatives have fallen short of their stated objectives because managers have tried to change too much, too quickly. If learning is to take place there must be a tacit understanding that this will not happen for all participants at the same time. Finally there was an acceptance by participants that if this initiative was not going to be just another one of many, which would have little impact beyond set funding, plans and systems had to be put in place which would sustain learning. (Nicolini, 2003, 727-47) LEAs are charged with the duty of managing and monitoring school improvement in their schools. There are many ways in which an LEA might approach this function. Areas for improvement could be identified in Educational Development Plan (EDPs) and targeted through programmes for continual professional development (CDP). Perhaps the most common mechanism used to stimulate school improvement by an LEA is the formulation and management of school improvement initiatives. (Gray,   2002, 27-34) The recent implementation of national initiatives in England (e.g. the National Literacy and Strategy and Numeracy Hour in primary schools) has not stopped LEAs from continuing to develop locally targeted projects aimed at raising school standards. Most recently, inspection has been one route by which the performance of school improvement initiatives has been monitored (the programme began in January 1998). The Office of Standards in Education (OFSTED) underlines the important contribution an LEA can make in delivering school improvement by calling its framework for LEA inspection LEA support for school improvement, picking out school improvement as an LEAs key function (OFSTED 2003:6). However, the Chief Inspector of schools in his annual report (1998/2003) claimed that some LEAs gave ineffective support to schools and could spawn a plethora of ineffective and often unwelcome initiatives which, more often than not, waste money and confuse and irritate schools (p. 20). The extent to which OFSTED can give detailed feedback on initiatives, sufficient to ensure organisational learning, is limited because inspections use a national framework and thus do not focus on the aims of different LEA initiatives. An alternative to inspection would be to use outside consultants to evaluate a specific programme. If an LEA is to make use of an evaluation to improve its services, the evaluators feedback can identify areas in which the LEA can learn and should indicate how that learning can be transferred to other initiatives. In evaluating the Making Belfast Work Raising Schools Standards initiative, the ISEIC team were specifically asked to investigate the impact of the overall project and to identify the factors which facilitated improvements and any barriers to success. The BELB, which has a history of innovative projects, wished to consider the implications of the evaluation with a mind to examining other school improvement projects and its part within these. The idea for the initiative stemmed from thinking in the Department of Education: Northern Ireland (DENI) which approached Making Belfast Work as funders. The initiative intended to help schools address significant disadvantage and under-achievement among their pupils. The project was intended to target a small number of secondary schools and their main contributory primary schools. Additional funding of  £3m, over a three-year period was to be allocated. We cannot report on all aspects of the evaluation covered in the main evaluation report (Sammons et al. 1998; Taggart and Sammons 2003) but will focus on ways in which the evaluations final report was able to feed back key learning points to the LEA, relevant to its management of future school improvement initiatives and the extent to which the initiative had an impact in term of its stated aims. The feedback was couched in terms that were intended to enable BELBs personnel to engage with their own learning and thus better understand their crucial role in initiating and managing initiatives. By doing this, the evaluators sought to help the Board improve its capacity to learn and thus enrich the service it offered to schools in the crucial area of raising school standards. Outsiders offering schools critical friendship as a basis for dialogue can be invaluable to developing organisational learning capacity. Schools need an external perspective to observe what is not immediately apparent to those working on the inside. These individuals and groups can watch and listen, ask thought-provoking questions about formal and informal data that help those in schools sort out their thinking, make sound decisions and determine appropriate strategies. This relationship, however, is more likely to work when it is based on trust and support, where critical friends bring an open mind and a commitment to mutual exchange, rather than their own vested interests. Consequently, when the feedback critical friends convey contains difficult messages, these are more likely to be heard and taken on board. A longer-term outcome of effective critical friendship appears to be the ability to help a school become its own critical friend. References    Anderson, V. Skinner, D. (2003). 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A. and Newby T. J. (1999) The expert learner: strategic, self regulated and reflective, Instructional Science 24: 1, 1-24. Fiol, C.M. Lyles, M.A. (2002). Organisational learning. Academy of Management Review, 10(4), 803-813.   Fullan, M. and Hargreaves, A. (2000) Whats Worth Fighting for in Your School?, Buckingham: Open University Press.   p.xii   Goldstein H. (2000) Editorial: statistical information and the measurement of education outcomes, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society A 155:3, 313-315. Gray, C. Gonsalves, E. (2002). Organisational learning and entrepreneurial strategy. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 3(1), 27-34. Gray, J., Hopkins, D., Reynolds, D., Wilcox, B., Farrell, S. and Jesson, D. (2003) Improving Schools: performance and potential, Buckingham: Open University Press.   141-53   Hargreaves, A. and Fullan, M. (1998) Whats Worth Fighting for in Education?, Buckingham: Open University Press.   p.7 Huber, G.P. (2000). Organisational learning: The contributing processes and the literatures. Organisation Science, 2(1), 88-115.   Johnstone, C. (2004) The Lens of Deep Ecology, London: IDEE. Kim, D.H. (2003). The link between individual and organisational learning. Sloan Management Review, Fall, 37-50.   Learmonth, J. and Lowers, K. (1998) A trouble shooter calls: the role of the independent consultant, in L. Stoll and K. Myers (eds) No Quick Fixes: perspectives on schools in difficulty, London: Falmer Press.   78-85   Learmonth, J. and Reed, J. (2000) Revitalising Teachers Accountability: learning about learning as a renewed focus for school improvement, paper presented at the Thirteenth International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement, Hong Kong, January.   Leithwood, K. and Aitken, R. (2003) Making Schools Smarter, Thousand Oaks CA: Corwin.   Leithwood, K. and Louis, K.S. (eds) (1998) Organizational Learning in Schools, Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger.   119-23   Leithwood, K., Jantzi, D. and Steinbach, R. (1998) Leadership and other conditions which foster organizational learning in schools, in K. Leithwood and K. S. Louis (eds) Organizational Learning in Schools, Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger.   Little, J. W. (1999) The persistence of privacy: autonomy and initiative in teachers professional relations, Teachers College Record 91:4, 509-536.   Louis, K. S. (2004) Beyond managed change, School Effectiveness and School Improvement 5:1, 2-25.   Louis, K. S. (1998) Reconnecting knowledge utilization and school improvement, in A. Hargreaves, A. Lieberman, M. Fullan and D. Hopkins (eds) International Handbook of Educational Change. Part 2, Dordrecht: Kluwer.   MacBeath, J. (1998) I didnt know he was ill: the role and value of the critical friend, in L. Stoll and K. Myers (eds) No Quick Fixes: perspectives on schools in difficulty London: Falmer Press.   311-22   MacGilchrist, B., Myers, K. and Reed, J. (2002) The Intelligent School, London: Paul Chapman. Morgan, G. (1999) Images of Organizations, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.   Morgan, G. (2002) Images of Organization (2nd edn), London: Sage. Mumford, A. (2000). Individual and organisational learningthe pursuit of change. Industrial and Commercial Training, 23(6), 24-31. Nicolini, D. Mesnar, M.B. (2003). The social construction of organisational learning: Conceptual and practical issues in the field. Human Relations, 48(7), 727-747.   OConnor, J. and McDermott, I. (2002) The Art of Systems Thinking, London: Thorsons. Prange, C. (2003). Organisational learningDesperately seeking theory? In M. Easterby-Smith, J. Burgoyne, L. Araujo (Eds), Organizational learning and the learning organization (pp. 23-43). London: Sage Publications.   Rait, E. 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Examining The Definition Of White Collar Crime Criminology Essay

Examining The Definition Of White Collar Crime Criminology Essay Little is known about white collar crime among ordinary people. Many people are unaware of its damage, because it is a less apparent harm. They cant even detect it themselves as happens, for example, with descriptions of consumer goods, with major frauds, corruption and pollution. They can just observe and endure its effects long after it occurred. This essay explores what is known about white collar crime and will expose every part of it in order to comprehend its gravity. This essay aims to examine the impact of white collar crime among citizens and to expose the harms caused by it. These issues will be discussed in this order. According to Croall (2001) most of the early criminologists associated crime only to activities of a lower social class of offenders who frequently populated courts and prisons. In the 19th century this hypothesis was challenged by a US criminologist named Edwin Sutherland who stated that crime should not only be associated with that particular class of people and that: persons of the upper socio-economic class engage in much criminal behaviour; that this criminal behaviour differs from the criminal behaviour of the lower socio-economic class principally in the administrative procedures which are used in dealing with the offenders and that variations in administrative procedures are not significant from the point of view of causation of crime (Sutherland, 1949:9) Newburn (2007) states that criminology has a small interest in white collar crime, it focused mostly on crimes such as theft, assault, burglary, criminal damage and others being strongly criticized for it. In the public belief criminology deals and researches only the crime of the powerless rather than the crime of the powerful. There are a number of reasons why criminology has treated this subject with small interest. Some of these reasons are that most of the activity is private and most of the time hidden making it very hard to study, the social and political interests in this area is little, the crime statistics do not capture this type of crimes. Another reason is that media coverage is different for this type of crime. There is usually less space devoted to white-collar crime, the coverage is less prominent and it is mostly written in the specialist press rather than in the common one. Even tough the focus of criminology in this area is little the concept of white collar crime dates back in the 19th century. The criminological work that is involved in this type of crime started with Edwin Sutherlands work. He was the criminologists that gave birth to the term and introduce its study to criminology. He tried to direct the preoccupation of criminologists from crimes committed by people of low social status to crimes committed by the ones belonging to a higher social class. Sutherland was way ahead of his time by his research. His concept of crime committed by high status individuals and the concept of white collar crime came well before labeling theories suggested that the nature of crime should not be found in the act itself but in the social response to the act. Even though Sutherland approach was indisputable it was considerable criticized. (Newburn, 2007) According to Tappan (1947, cited in Newburn, 2007, pp. 374-375) Sutherlands attempt to label people who had not been convicted by a court of justice as criminals was appalling and stated that what Sutherland sees as deviant behaviour is actually normal business practice. As a response to Tappan, Sutherland stated that some of the normal business practices were in contradiction with the legal rules. His definition of white-collar crime is highly disputed because it oversees very different kinds of victims, offenders and offences. It covers crimes committed by people from a high social status, crimes that are committed against or on behalf of some organizations. It is also a very different type of crime because it generally takes place in private, it almost always involves a form of inside knowledge, it has the tendency of having uncertain legal and criminal status, it involves an abuse of trust, the offenders appear to be legitimately present at the scene and the complaints are made l ong after the event. As mentioned before there are different kinds of victims, offenders and offences in white collar crime and because of that according to Croall (2001) there are seven main types of white collar crime such as: theft at work, fraud, corruption, employment offences, consumer offences, food offences, environmental crime and an eight type, state-corporate crime, identified according to Newburn (2007). Theft at work corresponds to activities that range from small scale employee theft to large scale embezzlement. According to Barclay and Tavares (1999) research undertaken by the British retail consortium established that theft by staff accounted for losses of approximately one quarter of losses from all crime. According to Newburn (2007) another research undertaken by Karstedt and Farrell (2007) showed that, from 1000 people that have participated in the study, more than 61 per cent admitted to have committed offences such as paying in cash to avoid taxation, avoiding paying a TV licence, falsely claiming refunds and many similar small crimes. Employment offences cover business practice and aspects of working life that ranges from employment, health and safety to low pay. Every year a large group of people are injured or even killed at work and evidence shows that the people that are more likely to fall in this category are from the lowest socio-economic groups. Tombs (2004, cited in Newburn, 2007, pp. 380) states that there have been recorded over 1600 deaths that have been linked to asbestosis in 2000 and in 2001 the Health and Safety Executive recorded 633 fatal occupational injuries and about 130.000 other injuries that had the result in a minimum three days off work estimating the cost of workplace injuries at 18 billion pounds a year. Environmental crime includes a variety of offences ranging from fly-tipping to major industrial disasters such as Bhopal. Bhopal is the city where a carbide plant leaked almost 30 tones of methyl isocyanate, exposing almost half a million people and it has been estimated that almost 20.000 of those people died to date because of it. Another form of environmental crime is represented by waste dumping. A well known case dates according to Newburn (2007) from 1998 in Cambodia where a shipment of waste was deposited 15 miles outside a village wrapped in plastic sheets. These plastic sheets were considered very useful in such a poor country and were taken by local villagers that soon started to feel sick having symptoms that varied from headaches to chest pains. It has been estimated that almost 600 of the 1200 residents fell sick. (Newburn, 2007) Fraud covers many activities that involve a form or another of misinterpretation in order to achieve financial or material advantages. According to Levi et al. (2007) there are 14 common types of fraud: benefit fraud, charity fraud, cheque fraud, consumer frauds, counterfeit intellectual property and products, data-compromise fraud, embezzlement, gaming frauds, insider dealing/market abuse, insurance fraud, lending fraud, pension-type fraud, procurement fraud and tax fraud. (Levi et al. 2007) Benefit fraud is a type of fraud based on the social security system and has a variety of cases from working and claiming benefits to failure to notify benefit officials of changes in circumstances. Charity fraud covers frauds where donations are taken for charities that do not exist or have been embezzled from registered charities. Cheque fraud is the type of fraud which means issuing cheques knowing that they are not covered. It is a type of fraud that is usually covered up to a set limit. Consumer frauds include lottery/prize scams, telemarketing frauds, misrepresentation of products and gaming frauds such as fixed races. Counterfeit intellectual property and products fraud includes the illegal copying of vehicle parts, art and antiques, computer software and games, CDs, DVDs and even medicines. Data-compromise fraud covers fraud on both companies and individuals by fraudulently gaining and using financial information. Embezzlement is the type of fraud taken against businesses, government departments and professional firms by staff and it generally involves accounts manipulation or the construction of false invoices. Insider dealing/market abuse represents in general share trading by using information that is not available to the public. It may or may not directly affect people but it affects the market and can be seen as fraud against the whole public. Insurance fraud stands for fraud that is made against insurance companies and varies from arson for profit to false claims. Procurement fraud includes fraud and corruption involved in the purchasing process from price-fixing to the abuse of inside information. (Levi et al. 2007) Tax fraud covers the failure to pay direct, indirect and excise taxes. According to Newburn (2007) this is a very common type of fraud and it is estimated that it costs the European Union almost 34 billion pound per year. These are the types of white collar crime described by Levi et al. (2007) and in order to better understand Sutherlands definition of the concept we should also research the offenders. McBarnet (1988) states that usually wealthy offenders or large corporations are the ones who make the most of white collar crime as they can more easily avoid breaking the law by employing expert advisers to keep them in accordance with the letter of law. However, if they do break the rules, they may also use expert advisers or hire the best lawyers to negotiate with enforces and contest cases in court, in order to produce more indulgent outcomes. (Croall, 1989) Jewkes and Letherby (2002) state that very few offenders are prosecuted for white collar crime and, because of this, it is difficult to determine what characterizes a white collar criminal. Offenders of white collar crime are usually believed to be from high status backgrounds but there are indications that show the opposite. According to Jewkes and Letherby (2002) there are authors that found that small businesses were the types of business that mostly resorted to insurance fraud rather than big ones. They also found that small video stores and moonlighting builders are more likely to be convicted by The Inland Revenue because their offences are cheaper to investigate and easier to convict than large businesses. Another reason for this is because small businesses deal directly with the public making it harder for them to conceal their operations that most of the time are less complex than the ones from large businesses and also because the proprietor is much more easily identified a s the responsible person. Regarding to the race, age and gender of the offender there is little information. Although Gelsthorpe and Morris (1988) affirm that the vast majority of offenders are male. That could be related to womens lower involvement in powerful positions with so many opportunities to commit high-profile white collar crime. On the other hand, a large number of women are found in fraud categories. Anyway, there had been a few legendary female white collar crime offenders to compare with the male defendants in the Guinness trials, or the directors of firms who have been charged with white collar crime. In addition, most major scandals involving frauds or corruption in the United Kingdom have involved men. Besides that, popular representation of entrepreneurs and mavericks are also mainly male. It is believed that, white collar offenders are recognized by their older age. This can be partially explained by employment rates, because younger people are less likely to achieve a powerful and trusted position associated with forms of white collar crime. Some people agree with the statement that theft at work increases with age. (Croall, 2001) Race or ethnicities have been little explored in studies of white collar crime compared with other types of crime, where it has received greater attention. This could be linked to the employment status of different minority groups where high-status occupations are dominated by majority. Studies based on white collar crime have confirmed a wide variety of offenders that were divided into two main categories: Individual offenders and Organisational offenders. Newburn (2007) states that individual offenders can be grouped according to their occupational status as elite offenders, the middle classes and white-collar workers. Elite offenders group include people with great influence, owners and partners in businesses and corrupt politicians. The middle classes group belong to middle managers, professionals and civil servants whom are mostly dealing with tax offending and fraud. White-collar workers group is represented by clerical workers and the other people involved in theft, from a lower level of organisations. Organisational offenders can be grouped according to the size of their businesses into corporate offenders, petty bourgeois businesses, and rogue and cowboy businesses. Corporate offenders involve the worlds largest corporate bodies in diverse types of delinquencies. Petty bourgeois are small companies operating locally mostly implicated in health and safety offences. Rogue and cowboy group are mainly involved in consumer fraud by misrepresentation on products and services. After describing what white collar crime means, its forms and offenders we should take a look at the victims of this type of crime. According to Levi (1988) the victims of white collar crime vary from people that is very wealthy to people that are very poor. Newburn (2007) states that, white collar victimization is different from the victimization of conventional crimes. According to Croall (2007) one of the main focuses of white collar criminology is to expose the harm caused by the crimes of the powerful which seem to overcome the harm caused by conventional crime. It tends to use general categories to describe the victims and it has the tendency to research the relation between class, status, power and offending, criminal justice and sentencing rather than victimization. Croall (2007) argues that victimization is made and studied as a multitude of layers. At the first level it affects private individuals, at the second level it affects organizations and at the third and final leve l it affects the society. There are crimes that do not target individual people but they end up doing it. For example crimes that target and affect the government end up affecting all citizens. Victimization of white collar crime is often covered up by creating incidents that result from systematic violations of the regulations. The victims are also classified as deserving and undeserving. Investors can be accused of making bad investments and are seen as less deserving than people who for example are victimized through pension fraud. One of the principles of the consumer law is to let the buyer beware so most of the victims are blamed by others or even blame themselves for not paying attention and for being taken in by sales cons and counterfeit goods. According to Croall (2007) one of the most outrageous blaming of the victims was at the Hillsborough disaster when 96 people were killed in the collapse of a football stadium, disaster that ended up to have been provoked by the advanced drunken state of the spectators. (Croall, 2007) According to Croall (2001), the best way to reduce the extent of white collar crime is through promoting a good relationship with firms that are being policed. Criminal law is universalistic and absolute, and those who offend against it are criminals. (Snider, 1990: 385) Even if sentences for white collar crime attract less public attention, they do attract criticism where, for example serious fraudsters receive short prison sentences or companies blamed for death or injuries are given a relatively small fine. Their actions are rarely criminalised if they are, they are rarely punished adequately. It should be taken into consideration the harm that has been done. (Croall, 2001) White collar crime continues to raise a lot of questions to which answers must be found in order to improve the quality of life. This essay defined and described the concept of white collar crime. It studied and showed its types, the offenders and categories of offenders, the victims and the impact that it has on them and also how criminology studies this type of offence.

Globalisation and China’s Environmental Problems Essay -- Impact USA o

Is the lifestyle of people in Europe and the USA a major cause of China’s environmental problems? One of China’s best successes has in turn been one of its biggest downfalls. One of the main problems is China’s greatest success which has been its phenomenal economic growth. This is one of the main drivers of the current environmental problems that the country faces. Factories dump pollutants into the air and water. It is difficult to see the Chinese government making the significant sacrifices required to improve their environment if it means slowing down their economic growth. In order to understand why China is in such environmental difficulties we need to understand why the lifestyles of people in Europe and the US could be to blame. The first area to consider is the environmental issues that China is currently suffering with. Once this is established I can assert what impact the US and Europe has in relation to these issues and what actually causes them. In linking the events it will be easier to see the chain of events. To do this I am going to work backwards and understand the issues that exist within China and then secondly what they are a result of. This will give me the background of why China’s environmental issues have become so dire. According to the Worldwatch Institute the rapid industrialization has polluted many lakes and streams resulting in chemical pollution and increased algae blooms leaving the water undrinkable. These combined issues are then causing knock on effects to the aquatic life by staving them of oxygen. Many areas are also suffering with an increase in dust storms; these have been a cause of over agricultural use. These increased storms would not cause many problems but now they can ... ... U.S. Firms driving pollution in China. Web. 16 March 2015 http://news.mongabay.com/2007/0822-wsj.html (accessed 12th April 2011) The Open University (2009) U116 Environment: journeys through a changing world, Block 5, â€Å"Changing China†, Milton Keynes, The Open University China â€Å"Unfairly seen as eco-villain†. Web. 16 March 2015 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8100988.stm Member states of the EU. Web. 16 March 2015 http://europa.eu/abc/european_countries/index_en.htm The US-China business council, table 7: China’s top trade partners. Web. 16 March 2015 http://www.uschina.org/statistics/tradetable.html Fast food globalisation, available from http://schoolworkhelper.net/2011/02/fast-food-globalization/ (accessed 19th April 2011) List of countries by population. Web. 16 March 2015 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population

Free College Essays - Sleep in Shakespeares Sonnet XXVII :: free essay writer

Motif of Sleep in Shakespeare's Sonnet XXVII    In William Shakespeare’s â€Å"Sonnet 27†, a motif that can be followed throughout the poem is that of sleep and weariness. This motif is used to reinforce the theme of the entire sonnet: that the speaker cannot sleep due to thoughts of his lover. The speaker’s diction supports the theme of work and toil. Words like â€Å"zealous†, â€Å"drooping†, â€Å"repose†, â€Å"haste†, and â€Å"expired† illustrate the weariness that the speaker is feeling, and help to give significance to the fact that he can not sleep. Although the speaker is so very tired, â€Å"... my thoughts, from far where I abide, intend a zealous pilgrimage to thee ...,† when the speaker describes the thought of his lover as one that â€Å"Makes black night beauteous and her old face new,† the reader knows that the weariness of the speaker is not aggravated by these thoughts, they are positive. â€Å".. . By day my limbs, by night my mind, for thee and for myself no quiet find.† This line is a summation of the problems faced by the speaker. From working hard all day long to only be faced with thoughts of his lover at night is torturous, and the reader can’t help but get a feeling that the speaker is obsessed. This sonnet is so unique due to the fact that it is a simple love poem made so subtle due to a lack of mention of the actual lover. The words â€Å"thee† and â€Å"thy† appear only three times in the poem. Shakespeare has once again captured a feeling so overused in poems and stories in a fresh and original way that wins over audiences to this day. Sonnet XXVII 1.....Weary with toil, I haste me to my bed, 2.....The dear repose for limbs with travel tired; 3.....But then begins a journey in my head, 4.....To work my mind, when body's work's expired: